Which One's the Sexy Indian?
A Comparison Between Berdaches and Hijras
By Adam Bruno
Homosexuality, particularly androgyny, has existed throughout history in a myriad of forms. This paper reflects the research on two separate cultures, although they are similar in many ways. These cultures are the berdaches of Native America (Native American Indians), and the hijras of India.
Historical Perspective
The idea that gender is culturally constructed is now a dominant viewpoint in cultural anthropology. The view that cultural construction of gender is based upon anthropological and historical work on alternative gender roles in various cultures, both past and present. Writings on homosexuality and alternative gender roles have been generally scarce in anthropologic literature. Social anthropologists are only beginning to appreciate the diversity of alternative gender roles in various societies. The pioneer work of Gilbert Herdt, written in Third Sex, Third Gender, beyond sexual dimorphism in culture and history, paved the way to the initiation of many researchers focusing on sexual variance in non-Western societies, including India, Thailand, China, Japan, Latin America, Indonesia, and the Middle East. The binary system that dominates Western societies is now being questioned by these new scientific contributions.
Methodology
The information detailed in this paper is based on two books: Neither Man nor Woman by Serena Nanda regarding hijras, and The Spirit and the Flesh by Walter Williams, which addresses berdachism. The methodology of the two ethnographers differs slightly. Serena Nanda interviewed many hijras and gathered many narratives, but did not really live among them, instead opting to live in a separate flat. She also interviewed and gathered narratives from only hijras who were friendly towards her, so her ethnography would be at least a bit biased towards friendliness. She also heavily utilized two different translators: one for immediate translation and one for translation of the tapes upon which she would record the interviews. Nanda's study took place over a period of twenty years, but her visits were interrupted and usually not longer than one year.
Walter Williams, however, lived among the berdaches for quite some time on various tribal reservations, in addition to interviewing berdaches and non-berdaches alike. His study took place over a shorter period of time than Nanda's, but he was there constantly, with much fewer interruptions. He also had no need of translators, because all of the Native Americans that he interviewed were fluent in English. Also, he was openly homosexual, which allowed the berdaches to identify more with him as a person as well as a researcher.
Cultural Differences
Berdaches are Native American males who dress up as women, do traditional "women's tasks," and often become the wives of the males. Although they do much of the women's work, they are still allowed to do most of the men's work, as well. Hijras are Indian males who dress up as women and usually emasculate themselves. They usually do everything possible to become female or as close to it as possible, and they also become wives to Indian men on many occasions. These function much like mother-daughter relationships in regards to emotional and social kinship.
One of the most important aspects of both berdaches and hijras is their role in society. They are both highly respected and feared for their spiritual power and ceremonial roles by many people. They have both also been able to survive despite fierce opposition, although the hijras appear to have been able to do so while keeping more or less intact, while the berdache traditions were subject to many changes in the cultural and religious turmoil.
The cultural difference between the two is rather significant. Berdaches are a part of the mainstream society, and are so integrated that they need not be separate at all in most cases, although the less traditional Native Americans may ridicule them. Berdaches supposedly receive their vision and calling from the spirits, as well as through their homosexual and androgynous desires. Hijras, however, have their own subculture, which is separate from the mainstream Indian culture. This is largely due to the fear and ridicule accorded them by the rest of society. However, despite the ridicule and stigma, hijras are still called upon to perform, and still have an important ceremonial role at births and weddings.
The berdaches are usually isolated from the rest of American society, although this is more of a boon than a bane due to the widespread homophobia that is found all over the United States. As the berdaches are usually isolated, living among other Native Americans, their sexuality is rarely, if ever criticized by other Native Americans. Hijras, however, are not as isolated as the berdaches. There are no physical barriers, but there are quite a few emotional and social barriers. They are constantly scolded and stigmatized by the rest of their society, although they are still respected and feared.
The ceremonial roles of the two are similar, yet have some differences. Hijras perform, beg, and sell themselves for sex, while berdaches mainly focus on performances and spiritualistic roles with much less of a capitalistic outlook on life. However, this can be attributed at least partly to the fact that the berdache generally lives in a closely-knit tribe while hijras generally reside in a large, bustling city. Thus, the value of money is greater for the hijras, who need it to live, than for the berdaches, who have little or no use of it.
The Native American outlook on gender states that the gender orientation is separate from the biological sex. Thus, berdaches make no attempt to change themselves to become more anatomically like a woman, although they do cross-dress. Such is not the case with hijras. Most hijras undergo an emasculation operation, where the male genitalia is removed, thus making them more feminine. However, even hijras admit that they are neither male nor female, although they periodically demand to be counted as females in the census.
The traditional occupations other than ceremonial roles of the two differ as well. Hijras perform before an audience, beg for alms, and many turn to the lucrative business of prostitution. Berdaches, however, normally do women's work, or a mixture of women and men's work. They weave baskets, prepare food, clean, sew, do laundry, and perform other menial tasks. In fact, most berdaches surpass the women in their craftsmanship skills. Berdaches can still do male jobs while the hijras tend to only perform female roles.
Sexuality
During the times of oppression by the Europeans and their repressive Christian doctrines, the berdaches had very few choices. They committed suicide, gave up their traditions, or practiced them in secret. If the Europeans discovered their status, they would punish them severely for practicing the "abominable act of sodomy." Punishments would range in severity from removing their hair and dressing them up like men to outright murder.
Hijras, however, were far too ingrained in mainstream Indian society to be affected to any great extent by the British rule of India. Even when the British specifically outlawed hijras and their performing, they met with little or no success to their repression. In fact, even though prostitution is illegal, the police allow the hijras to run prostitution rings. Surprisingly enough, more than a few policemen are themselves patrons of the brothels! Most hijras also undergo an emasculation operation, where the genitals are removed so they can be more feminine. This operation brings them closer to Mata, the Mother Goddess. It also proves that they are real, authentic hijras, and not fakes. The berdaches, on the other hand, did not need to be emasculated. They believed in the same spirits as the rest of the Indians.
Oral sex was commonly practiced on the part of the berdache, but rarely by the hijras, as it was considered to be a waste of sperm. Hijras often extended sexual favors for money, which they needed to live. The berdaches, however, mostly did not engage in prostitution, although there were some exceptions. Sexual intercourse in the two cultures is different in technique and preference. Hijras concentrate more on assuming the role of a woman than any other aspect of sex, which presumably makes them closer to their goddess, Mata. Berdaches, on the other hand, concentrate on pleasure.
Some similarities exist between the marriage practices in both societies. Berdaches are often seen as better wives than females as they do not menstruate, get pregnant, or nurse. Hijras tend to produce money independent of their husbands. Berdaches are extremely productive, but they do not generally work for money, instead working for food and simply to help people. They both marry from outside their communities.
Final Thoughts
I believe that we should look for the anthropological basis of homosexuality as well as diverse gender roles. This would make it easier to understand the various sexual patterns of our society without adopting homophobic pre-conceived ideas. If this is found and the homophobia that so pervades our society is eradicated, then those who are androgynous and/or homosexual will be considered normal, and not stigmatized. This is the significance of the two books, one by Serena Nanda, and the other by Walter Williams.
The difference in methodology and the difference between the two populations are obvious, notably the physical emasculation surgery performed on hijras. This mutilation, although considered atrocious by many, is certainly an integral part of the intricate hijra culture. I personally enjoyed The Spirit and the Flesh more than Neither Man nor Woman. The author of The Spirit and the Flesh was himself homosexual, so he was more able to relate to the feelings of the berdaches and gain the confidence of the Native Americans much more easily than a heterosexual would be. Also, the methodology of Walter Williams seemed more thorough than that of Serena Nanda, although his research did not span over as many years. In conclusion, berdaches and hijras should not be defined as "transvestites" or "transsexuals," but instead seen as alternative or intermediate genders. These ethnographies only serve to strengthen this point.
Bibliography
1. Nanda, Serena (author):
Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India.
Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2nd Edition, 1999.
2. Williams, Walter L. (author):
The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture.
Beacon Press, 2nd Edition, 1992.